Cradle-to-grave life cycle assessment of Li-ion NCM batteries with pyrometallurgical recycling

This study presents a comprehensive environmental Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) with Nickel–Cobalt–Manganese (NCM) chemistry, evaluating impacts across within a cradle-to-grave perspective. The analysis encompasses raw material acquisition, battery production, distribution, use phase, and end-of-life (EoL) treatment, with pyrometallurgical recycling considered as the EoL scenario. Using the SimaPro v10.2.0.3 tool with the Ecoinvent 3.10 database, the study quantifies environmental burdens across multiple categories, including climate change, acidification, resource depletion (minerals and metals), and ecotoxicity. Results indicate that battery production is the dominant contributor to most environmental impacts, driven by energy-intensive manufacturing and critical raw material (CRM) extraction. The use phase adds moderate greenhouse gas emissions, while distribution remains negligible. Pyrometallurgical recycling provides significant environmental credits, particularly in resource depletion, partially offsetting production-related impacts. However, trade-offs exist, as recycling introduces minor burdens in certain categories such as acidification. The novelty of the study lies in its comprehensive, cradle-to-grave approach, which quantifies the recycling credits provided by the pyrometallurgical process. This research establishes a holistic environmental performance framework for NCM111 batteries and serves as baseline for comparing alternative EoL strategies, such as hydrometallurgical recycling or regeneration. The study supports informed decision-making for sustainable battery management in electric mobility, emphasizing the need for efficient production and advanced recycling technologies to minimize overall environmental footprint. Moreover, findings demonstrate that effective recovery of CRM through recycling is essential for reducing dependency on primary resource extraction and enhancing the long-term sustainability and supply security of battery systems.