Production, characterization, and toxicology of environmentally relevant nanoplastics: a review

Nanoplastic pollution is poorly known, in particular because research is actually mainly done using synthetic polymeric nanospheres that are not representative of environmental nanoplastics, which are very diverse in their composition, size, and shape. Here we review environmentally relevant nanoplastics with focus on their production, characterization, quantification, stability, aggregation, and toxicity. Production of environmentally relevant nanoplastics can be done by mechanical and physicochemical methods. Toxicological studies focus on internalization and toxicity on human cell lines, and bioaccumulation and systemic effects on model organisms.