Training models and simulators for endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery: a systematic review

: Endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery is a novel surgical technique requiring specific training. Different models and simulators have been recently suggested for it, but no systematic review is available. To provide a systematic and critical literature review and up-to-date description of the training models or simulators dedicated to endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery. A search was performed on PubMed and Scopus databases for articles published until February 2023; Google was also searched to document commercially available. For each model, the following features were recorded: training performed, tumor/arachnoid reproduction, assessment and validation, and cost. Of the 1199 retrieved articles, 101 were included in the final analysis. The described models can be subdivided into 5 major categories: (1) enhanced cadaveric heads; (2) animal models; (3) training artificial solutions, with increasing complexity (from "box-trainers" to multi-material, ct-based models); (4) training simulators, based on virtual or augmented reality; (5) Pre-operative planning models and simulators. Each available training model has specific advantages and limitations. Costs are high for cadaver-based solutions and vary significantly for the other solutions. Cheaper solutions seem useful only for the first stages of training. Most models do not provide a simulation of the sellar tumor, and a realistic simulation of the suprasellar arachnoid. Most artificial models do not provide a realistic and cost-efficient simulation of the most delicate and relatively common phase of surgery, i.e., tumor removal with arachnoid preservation; current research should optimize this to train future neurosurgical generations efficiently and safely.