Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most aggressive and lethal primary brain tumor in adults, characterized by highly invasive growth, frequent recurrence, and marked resistance to conventional therapies. These clinical challenges largely originate from profound intra-tumoral heterogeneity at genetic, epigenetic, and functional levels, largely driven by glioblastoma stem cells (GSCs). GSCs possess enhanced capacities for DNA repair, drug efflux, metabolic plasticity, and stress adaptation, allowing them to survive standard treatments and regenerate the tumor. Among the molecular mediators implicated in GBM malignancy, Pentraxin 3 (PTX3) has emerged as a multifunctional regulator involved in tumor-associated inflammation, complement activation, immune modulation, and extracellular matrix remodelling. However, its specific role within the GSC compartment has remained unclear. Given the central role of GSCs in tumor maintenance and therapeutic resistance, defining the function of PTX3 in these cells is essential for understanding its contribution to GBM biology. This study provides the first systematic characterization of PTX3 in GSCs and investigates its effects on proliferation, invasion, metabolic state, angiogenesis, and in vivo tumor growth. Bioinformatic analyses of publicly available datasets revealed that PTX3 expression increases progressively from low-grade gliomas to GBM and correlates with reduced overall survival, supporting a pro-tumorigenic function. Two GSC lines with distinct endogenous PTX3 levels were selected: BT302 (high PTX3) and BT483 (low PTX3). These models were subjected to gain- and loss-of-function approaches. Functional studies showed that PTX3 regulates GSC proliferation in a context-dependent manner. Overexpression of PTX3 in BT483 cells enhanced proliferation, indicating a growth-promoting role under low baseline PTX3 levels. Conversely, PTX3 silencing in BT302 cells had minimal impact on proliferation, suggesting that high-proliferative GSCs may become less dependent on PTX3. In 3D organoid systems, PTX3 knockdown in BT302 increased Ki67 positivity without changing organoid size, indicating compensatory mechanisms emerging under physiologically relevant conditions. PTX3 displayed a more consistent influence on invasion. PTX3 knockdown significantly impaired BT302 invasiveness, whereas overexpression increased invasion in BT483 cells. These findings align with PTX3’s known involvement in extracellular matrix remodeling. PTX3 also modulated the hypoxia response. Its levels correlated with expression of the hypoxia marker CAIX in both organoids and in vivo. PTX3 silencing increased CAIX expression in BT302 cells, while overexpression doesn't affect hypoxia signatures in BT483 cells, suggesting that PTX3 regulates oxygen homeostasis, potentially through metabolic or matrix-related mechanisms. Metabolic assays revealed that PTX3 silencing in BT302 cells compromised mitochondrial respiration and increased glycolysis, indicating a shift toward a less efficient metabolic phenotype. Gene expression analyses confirmed downregulation of oxidative phosphorylation and upregulation of hypoxia- and apoptosis-associated pathways, positioning PTX3 as a key regulator of GSC metabolic fitness. PTX3 additionally influenced angiogenic behaviour. Its silencing reduced vascular development in chorioallantoic membrane assays, whereas overexpression enhanced angiogenesis. In orthotopic tumor models, PTX3-silenced tumors exhibited reduced mass but unexpectedly increased CD31 staining, suggesting compensatory vascular responses in vivo. Finally, PTX3 strongly promoted tumor growth in both subcutaneous and orthotopic mouse models. Silencing PTX3 reduced tumor burden, while overexpression accelerated progression. Antisense oligonucleotides (GapmeRs) effectively downregulated PTX3 in vivo, demonstrating the feasibility of therapeutically targeting PTX3. Overall, these findings identify PTX3 as a key driver of GBM aggressiveness.
Il glioblastoma (GBM) è il tumore maligno primario più aggressivo del sistema nervoso centrale negli adulti. Sebbene rappresenti una minoranza dei tumori cerebrali, causa la maggior parte dei decessi per via della sua crescita invasiva, dell’elevata recidiva e della resistenza ai trattamenti. La prognosi sfavorevole è dovuta all’elevata eterogeneità intra-tumorale, determinata soprattutto dalle cellule staminali del glioblastoma (GSCs). Queste cellule possiedono capacità avanzate di riparazione del DNA, elevata resistenza al trattamento farmacologico, plasticità metabolica e robuste risposte allo stress, che consentono loro di sopravvivere a radio- e chemioterapia e di rigenerare il tumore. Tra i fattori molecolari associati alla malignità del GBM, Pentraxina 3 (PTX3) è emersa come regolatore dell’infiammazione tumorale, dell’attivazione del complemento, del reclutamento immunitario e del rimodellamento della matrice extracellulare. Tuttavia, il suo ruolo specifico nelle GSCs è ancora sconosciuto. Poiché le GSCs hanno un ruolo centrale nella progressione tumorale, caratterizzare la funzione di PTX3 in queste cellule è cruciale per comprenderne il contributo alla biologia del GBM. Lo studio presenta il primo studio mirato sul ruolo di PTX3 nelle GSCs, valutandone gli effetti su proliferazione, invasione, metabolismo, angiogenesi e crescita tumorale in vivo. Analisi bioinformatiche mostrano che l’espressione di PTX3 aumenta dai gliomi di basso grado al GBM e si associa a ridotta sopravvivenza, indicando un ruolo pro-tumorigenico. Due linee di GSC sono state scelte come modelli: BT302 (alta PTX3) e BT483 (bassa PTX3) e poi sottoposte a manipolazioni di gain- e loss-of-function. La funzione di PTX3 sulla proliferazione risulta dipendente dal contesto. Nelle BT483, l’over-espressione aumenta la crescita cellulare; nelle BT302, il silenziamento non altera significativamente la proliferazione. Negli organoidi, però, il knockdown di PTX3 aumenta la positività a Ki67 senza modificare le dimensioni, suggerendo un equilibrio proliferativo compensato da dinamiche organizzative più complesse. Un ruolo più consistente emerge nell’invasione: il silenziamento di PTX3 riduce significativamente l’invasività nelle BT302, mentre la sua overespressione la aumenta nelle BT483. Questo è coerente con la funzione di PTX3 nel rimodellamento della matrice extracellulare e nella capacità infiltrativa delle GSCs. PTX3 modula anche la risposta all’ipossia. I suoi livelli correlano con il marcatore CAIX: il knockdown aumenta CAIX nelle BT302, mentre l’over-espressione non la modifica nelle BT483. Ciò suggerisce che PTX3 contribuisca alla regolazione dell’omeostasi dell’ossigeno. Le analisi metaboliche rivelano che il silenziamento di PTX3 compromette la respirazione mitocondriale e aumenta la glicolisi, indicando una transizione verso un metabolismo meno efficiente. Una Gene set enrichment analysis ha confermato la downregolazione della fosforilazione ossidativa e l’attivazione di vie correlate a processi di ipossia e apoptosi. PTX3 influenza anche l’angiogenesi: la sua riduzione diminuisce la formazione vascolare, mentre l’aumento la potenzia. Nei modelli ortotopici, il knockdown porta a tumori più piccoli ma con maggiore marcatura di CD31, suggerendo risposte vascolari compensatorie. Infine, PTX3 promuove la crescita tumorale nei modelli murini sia sottocutanei sia ortotopici. Il suo silenziamento riduce significativamente la massa tumorale, mentre l’over-espressione la accelera. Inoltre, gli oligonucleotidi antisenso (GapmeRs) si mostrano efficaci nel ridurre PTX3 in vivo, evidenziandone il potenziale terapeutico. In sintesi, PTX3 emerge come regolatore chiave della biologia delle GSCs, influenzando proliferazione, invasione, metabolismo, angiogenesi e crescita tumorale. Il suo ruolo pro-tumorigenico e la correlazione con prognosi sfavorevole ne fanno un promettente bersaglio terapeutico nel GBM.
Long Pentraxin-3 in the biology of glioblastoma / Tavani, C.. - (2026 Mar 03).
Long Pentraxin-3 in the biology of glioblastoma
Tavani, Camilla
2026-03-03
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most aggressive and lethal primary brain tumor in adults, characterized by highly invasive growth, frequent recurrence, and marked resistance to conventional therapies. These clinical challenges largely originate from profound intra-tumoral heterogeneity at genetic, epigenetic, and functional levels, largely driven by glioblastoma stem cells (GSCs). GSCs possess enhanced capacities for DNA repair, drug efflux, metabolic plasticity, and stress adaptation, allowing them to survive standard treatments and regenerate the tumor. Among the molecular mediators implicated in GBM malignancy, Pentraxin 3 (PTX3) has emerged as a multifunctional regulator involved in tumor-associated inflammation, complement activation, immune modulation, and extracellular matrix remodelling. However, its specific role within the GSC compartment has remained unclear. Given the central role of GSCs in tumor maintenance and therapeutic resistance, defining the function of PTX3 in these cells is essential for understanding its contribution to GBM biology. This study provides the first systematic characterization of PTX3 in GSCs and investigates its effects on proliferation, invasion, metabolic state, angiogenesis, and in vivo tumor growth. Bioinformatic analyses of publicly available datasets revealed that PTX3 expression increases progressively from low-grade gliomas to GBM and correlates with reduced overall survival, supporting a pro-tumorigenic function. Two GSC lines with distinct endogenous PTX3 levels were selected: BT302 (high PTX3) and BT483 (low PTX3). These models were subjected to gain- and loss-of-function approaches. Functional studies showed that PTX3 regulates GSC proliferation in a context-dependent manner. Overexpression of PTX3 in BT483 cells enhanced proliferation, indicating a growth-promoting role under low baseline PTX3 levels. Conversely, PTX3 silencing in BT302 cells had minimal impact on proliferation, suggesting that high-proliferative GSCs may become less dependent on PTX3. In 3D organoid systems, PTX3 knockdown in BT302 increased Ki67 positivity without changing organoid size, indicating compensatory mechanisms emerging under physiologically relevant conditions. PTX3 displayed a more consistent influence on invasion. PTX3 knockdown significantly impaired BT302 invasiveness, whereas overexpression increased invasion in BT483 cells. These findings align with PTX3’s known involvement in extracellular matrix remodeling. PTX3 also modulated the hypoxia response. Its levels correlated with expression of the hypoxia marker CAIX in both organoids and in vivo. PTX3 silencing increased CAIX expression in BT302 cells, while overexpression doesn't affect hypoxia signatures in BT483 cells, suggesting that PTX3 regulates oxygen homeostasis, potentially through metabolic or matrix-related mechanisms. Metabolic assays revealed that PTX3 silencing in BT302 cells compromised mitochondrial respiration and increased glycolysis, indicating a shift toward a less efficient metabolic phenotype. Gene expression analyses confirmed downregulation of oxidative phosphorylation and upregulation of hypoxia- and apoptosis-associated pathways, positioning PTX3 as a key regulator of GSC metabolic fitness. PTX3 additionally influenced angiogenic behaviour. Its silencing reduced vascular development in chorioallantoic membrane assays, whereas overexpression enhanced angiogenesis. In orthotopic tumor models, PTX3-silenced tumors exhibited reduced mass but unexpectedly increased CD31 staining, suggesting compensatory vascular responses in vivo. Finally, PTX3 strongly promoted tumor growth in both subcutaneous and orthotopic mouse models. Silencing PTX3 reduced tumor burden, while overexpression accelerated progression. Antisense oligonucleotides (GapmeRs) effectively downregulated PTX3 in vivo, demonstrating the feasibility of therapeutically targeting PTX3. Overall, these findings identify PTX3 as a key driver of GBM aggressiveness.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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